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1. What is the defining characteristic of the training data used in supervised learning?

A) The data is labeled, meaning each example is paired with a target output.
B) The data is unlabeled, and the model must find patterns on its own
C) The data is generated randomly by the algorithm.
D) The data is always image-based.

2. The primary goal of a supervised learning model is to:

A) Memorize the entire training dataset perfectly.
B) Reduce the dimensionality of the input data for visualization.
C) Generalize from the training data to make accurate predictions on new, unseen data.
D) Discover hidden patterns without any guidance

3. In the analogy of a child learning from flashcards, the animal's name on the card represents what component of supervised learning?

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A) The loss function
B) The model's parameters.
C) The input features.
D) The label or target output.

4. Which of the following tasks is a classic example of a classification problem?

A) Forecasting the temperature for tomorrow.
B) Estimating the annual revenue of a company.
C) Predicting the selling price of a house based on its features.
D) Diagnosing a tumor as malignant or benign based on medical images.

5. A model that predicts the continuous value of a stock price for the next day is solving a:

A) Clustering problem.
B) Regression problem.
C) Classification problem
D) Dimensionality reduction problem

6. What is the core objective of unsupervised learning?

A) To classify emails into spam and non-spam folders
B) To predict a target variable based on labeled examples
C) To discover the inherent structure, patterns, or relationships within unlabeled data.
D) To achieve perfect accuracy on a held-out test set.

7. In the analogy of a child grouping toys without instructions, the act of putting all the cars together is most similar to which unsupervised learning technique?

A) Regression
B) Reinforcement Learning.
C) Clustering
D) Classification

8. Grouping customers based solely on their purchasing behavior, without pre-defined categories, is an application of:

A) Logistic Regression, a type of supervised learning.
B) Clustering, a type of unsupervised learning.
C) A support vector machine for classification.
D) Linear Regression, a type of supervised learning.

9. The main goal of dimensionality reduction techniques like PCA is to:

A) Predict a continuous output variable.
B) Assign categorical labels to each data point.
C) Increase the number of features to improve model accuracy.
D) Reduce the number of features while preserving the most important information in the data.

10. Market basket analysis, which finds rules like "if chips then soda," is a classic example of:
Association rule learning in unsupervised learning.
Classification in supervised learning.
Regression in supervised learning.
Deep learning with neural networks.

A) Association rule learning in unsupervised learning.
B) Classification in supervised learning.
C) Regression in supervised learning.
D) Deep learning with neural networks.

11. Semi-supervised learning is particularly useful in real-world scenarios because:

A) Labeling data is often expensive and time-consuming, so it leverages a small labeled set with a large unlabeled set.
B) It is simpler to implement than unsupervised learning.
C) It is always more accurate than fully supervised learning.
D) It requires no labeled data at all.

12. The fundamental question that a regression model aims to answer is:

A) "Is this pattern anomalous?"
B) "How much?" or "How many?"
C) "What is the underlying group?"
D) "Which category?"

13. The fundamental question that a classification model aims to answer is:

A) "Which category?" or "What class?"
B) "How much?" or "How many?"
C) "What is the correlation between these variables?"
D) "How can I reduce the number of features?"

14. Which algorithm is most directly designed for predicting a continuous target variable?

A) Decision Tree for classification.
B) Linear Regression.
C) Logistic Regression.
D) k-Nearest Neighbors for classification.

15. A model that uses patient data to assign a label of "High," "Medium," or "Low" risk for a disease is performing:

A) Clustering.
B) Regression.
C) Dimensionality reduction.
D) Multi-class classification.

16. In a Decision Tree used for classification, what do the leaf nodes represent?

A) The probability of moving to the next node.
B) The final class labels or decisions.
C) The average value of a continuous target.
D) The input features for a new data point.

17. In a Regression Tree, what is typically represented at the leaf nodes?

A) A continuous value, often the mean of the target values of the training instances that reach the leaf.
B) A random number.
C) A categorical class label.
D) The name of the feature used for splitting.

18. A key strength of Decision Trees is their:

A) Superior performance on all types of data compared to other algorithms.
B) Interpretability; the model's decision-making process is easy to understand and visualize.
C) Immunity to overfitting on noisy datasets.
D) Guarantee to find the global optimum for any dataset.

19. The "kernel trick" used in Support Vector Machines (SVMs) allows them to:

A) Find a linear separating hyperplane in a high-dimensional feature space, even when the data is not linearly separable in the original space.
B) Grow a tree structure by making sequential decisions.
C) Perform linear regression more efficiently.
D) Initialize the weights of a neural network.

20. The "support vectors" in an SVM are the:

A) All data points in the training set.
B) The weights of a neural network layer.
C) Data points that are closest to the decision boundary and most critical for defining the optimal hyperplane.
D) The axes of the original feature space.

21. When comparing Decision Trees and SVMs, a primary advantage of SVMs is:

A) Their inherent resistance to any form of overfitting.
B) Their superior interpretability and simplicity.
C) Their effectiveness in high-dimensional spaces and their ability to model complex, non-linear decision boundaries.
D) Their lower computational cost for very large datasets.

22. The process in supervised learning where a model's parameters are adjusted to minimize the difference between its predictions and the true labels is called:

A) Clustering.
B) Data preprocessing.
C) Training or model fitting.
D) Dimensionality reduction.

23. A key challenge in unsupervised learning is evaluating model performance because:

A) The algorithms are not well-defined.
B) The data is always too small.
C) There are no ground truth labels to compare the results against.
D) The models are always less accurate than supervised models.

24. The task of reducing a 50-dimensional dataset to a 2-dimensional plot for visualization is best accomplished by:

A) Dimensionality Reduction techniques like Principal Component Analysis (PCA).
B) A Classification algorithm like Logistic Regression.
C) A Regression algorithm like Linear Regression.
D) An Association rule learning algorithm.

25. If an e-commerce company wants to automatically group its products into categories without any pre-existing labels, it should use:

A) A neural network for image recognition.
B) Clustering, an unsupervised learning method.
C) Regression, a supervised learning method.
D) Classification, a supervised learning method.

26. The core building block of a neural network is a(n):

A) Principal component.
B) Support vector.
C) Artificial neuron or perceptron, which receives inputs, applies a transformation, and produces an output.
D) Decision node in a tree.

27. In a neural network, the function inside a neuron that determines its output based on the weighted sum of its inputs is called the:

A) Loss function.
B) Kernel function.
C) Activation function.
D) Optimization algorithm.

28. Which of the following is a non-linear activation function crucial for allowing neural networks to learn complex patterns?

A) Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU).
B) A constant function.
C) The identity function (f(x) = x).
D) The mean squared error function.

29. The process of "training" a neural network involves:

A) Randomly assigning weights and never changing them.
B) Clustering the input data.
C) Manually setting the weights based on expert knowledge.
D) Iteratively adjusting the weights and biases to minimize a loss function.

30. Backpropagation is the algorithm used in neural networks to:

A) Perform clustering on the output layer.
B) Visualize the network's architecture.
C) Initialize the weights before training.
D) Efficiently calculate the gradient of the loss function with respect to all the weights in the network, enabling the use of gradient descent.

31. Deep Learning is a subfield of machine learning that primarily uses:

A) Simple linear regression models.
B) Neural networks with many layers (hence "deep").
C) K-means clustering exclusively.
D) Decision trees with a single split.

32. A key advantage of deep neural networks over shallower models is their ability to:

A) Be perfectly interpretable, like a decision tree.
B) Automatically learn hierarchical feature representations from data.
C) Operate without any need for data preprocessing.
D) Always train faster and with less data.

33. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are particularly well-suited for tasks involving:

A) Text data and natural language processing.
B) Tabular data with many categorical features.
C) Image data, due to their architecture which exploits spatial locality.
D) Unsupervised clustering of audio signals.

34. The "convolution" operation in a CNN is designed to:

A) Flatten the input into a single vector.
B) Initialize the weights of the network.
C) Detect local features (like edges or textures) in the input by applying a set of learnable filters.
D) Perform the final classification.

35. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are designed to handle:

A) Sequential data, like time series or text, due to their internal "memory" of previous inputs.
B) Independent and identically distributed (IID) data points.
C) Only image data.
D) Static, non-temporal data.

36. The "vanishing gradient" problem in deep networks refers to:

A) The loss function reaching a perfect value of zero.
B) The gradients becoming exceedingly small as they are backpropagated through many layers, which can halt learning in early layers.
C) The model overfitting to the training data.
D) The gradients becoming too large and causing numerical instability.

37. The "training set" is used to:

A) Provide an unbiased evaluation of a final model's performance.
B) Tune the model's hyperparameters.
C) Fit the model's parameters (e.g., the weights in a neural network).
D) Deploy the model in a production environment.

38. The "validation set" is primarily used for:

A) Data preprocessing and cleaning.
B) The final, unbiased assessment of the model's generalization error.
C) The initial training of the model's weights.
D) Tuning hyperparameters and making decisions about the model architecture during development.

39. The "test set" should be:

A) Used as part of the training data to improve accuracy.
B) Used only once, for a final evaluation of the model's performance on unseen data after model development is complete.
C) Used repeatedly to tune the model's hyperparameters.
D) Ignored in the machine learning pipeline.

40. Overfitting occurs when a model:

A) Is too simple to capture the trends in the data.
B) Fails to learn the underlying pattern in the training data.
C) Learns the training data too well, including its noise and outliers, and performs poorly on new, unseen data.
D) Is evaluated using the training set instead of a test set.

41. A common technique to reduce overfitting in neural networks is:

A) Using a smaller training dataset.
B) Dropout, which randomly ignores a subset of neurons during training.
C) Increasing the model's capacity by adding more layers.
D) Training for more epochs without any checks.

42. The "bias" of a model refers to:

A) The activation function used in the output layer.
B) The weights connecting the input layer to the hidden layer.
C) The error from sensitivity to small fluctuations in the training set, leading to overfitting.
D) The error from erroneous assumptions in the learning algorithm, leading to underfitting.

43. The "variance" of a model refers to:

A) The error from sensitivity to small fluctuations in the training set, leading to overfitting.
B) The error from erroneous assumptions in the learning algorithm, leading to underfitting.
C) The speed at which the model trains.
D) The intercept term in a linear regression model.

44. The "bias-variance tradeoff" implies that:

A) Bias and variance can be minimized to zero simultaneously.
B) Decreasing bias will typically increase variance, and vice versa. The goal is to find a balance.
C) Only variance is important for model performance.
D) Only bias is important for model performance.

45. A learning curve that shows high training accuracy but low validation accuracy is a classic sign of:

A) A well-generalized model.
B) Perfect model performance.
C) Underfitting.
D) Overfitting.

46. In a neural network, the "loss function" (or cost function) measures:

A) The accuracy on the test set.
B) The speed of the backpropagation algorithm.
C) The number of layers in the network.
D) How well the model is performing on the training data; it's the quantity we want to minimize during training.

47. Gradient Descent is an optimization algorithm that:

A) Is only used for unsupervised learning.
B) Randomly searches the parameter space for a good solution.
C) Iteratively adjusts parameters in the direction that reduces the loss function.
D) Guarantees finding the global minimum for any loss function.

48. The "learning rate" in gradient descent controls:

A) The amount of training data used in each epoch.
B) The number of layers in a neural network.
C) The size of the step taken during each parameter update. A rate that is too high can cause divergence, while one that is too low can make training slow.
D) The activation function for the output layer.

49. "Epoch" in neural network training refers to:

A) The processing of a single training example.
B) A type of regularization technique.
C) The final evaluation on the test set.
D) One complete pass of the entire training dataset through the learning algorithm.

50. "Batch Size" in neural network training refers to:

A) The number of layers in the network.
B) The number of validation examples.
C) The number of training examples used in one forward/backward pass before the model's parameters are updated.
D) The total number of examples in the training set.

51. "Stochastic Gradient Descent" (SGD) uses a batch size of:

A) 1, meaning the parameters are updated after each individual training example.
B) A random number between 1 and 100.
C) Exactly 50% of the training set.
D) The entire training set.

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